Do Armed Civilians Stop Active Shooters More Effectively Than Uniformed Police?

The FBI tracks active shooting cases-where individuals attempt to kill people in public places, excluding those tied to robberies or gang violence. This study is the first to systematically compare how uniformed police and civilians with concealed handgun permits perform in stopping these attacks. We find that civilians with permits reduce the number of victims killed, the number wounded, and the total number of casualties more than responding police officers do. They also stop the attacks more frequently and face a lower risk of being killed or injured than police. We also provide evidence that these numbers significantly underestimate the advantages of civilians over officers in stopping these attacks. We find that officers who intervened during the attacks were more likely to be killed or injured than those who apprehended the attackers later. We explore the implications of two possible identification problems. There is some evidence that Constitutional Carry laws reduce deaths and injuries from active shooting attacks.